Women start their careers in similar numbers to men but often drop out before reaching the leadership level. New research — co-authored by Katy Milkman, professor of operations, information, and decisions and James G. Dinan Endowed Professor, along with Wharton doctoral candidates Sophia Pink GRW27 and Jose Cervantez GRW27, among others — shows that women are more likely to put themselves forward and apply for leadership jobs after seeing one message: Women like them tend to compete less than men, and that gives men the upper hand.
Percentage of CEOs of Fortune 500 companies who are women, as of 2023
The Paradox
When people hear a negative stereotype about their group, they often want to prove it wrong, a phenomenon known as “stereotype reactance.”
“The idea is a bit like telling someone not to press a red button,” says Pink. “Once you know you’re not ‘supposed’ to do it, you want to more. In this case, being told that people like you fail to compete makes you want to do just the opposite and defy the stereotype.”
(Papers: Nerdi/Adobe Stock)
The Study
In the authors’ field study, 4,245 women using a job website for senior executive roles saw one of two messages. Some got general encouragement to apply for more jobs. Others were told that women like them apply for fewer top jobs and that this gives men the advantage. The latter message led to a 29 percent increase in women’s applications.
The Results
How can this work in the real world? Milkman suggests that messaging could be embedded in job boards, promotion systems, or even automated emails. “This is a small intervention with big potential,” she says. “It can help at the exact moment when someone might hold back from applying for a job or competing — and it can change that decision.”
The Takeaway
Rather than trying to make women more confident, says Pink, the study’s message is “about helping them see a harmful social stereotype and choose to go against it.” As for whether similar messages could help other underrepresented groups, the authors are cautious but hopeful. “We think the mechanism could work more broadly,” Pink says. “But it needs more testing.”
Published as “Could a Competitive Nudge Help Close the C-Suite Gender Gap” in the Fall/Winter 2025 issue of Wharton Magazine.
